Saving the Chinese Ghosts Overseas: A Study of Yogacara Ulkā-Mukha Ritual in Thailand

Abstract

Chinese migration to Southeast Asia dates back to the 4th century and peaked in the late 19th century. Chinese immigrants brought various folk beliefs to their new homes, manifesting in colorful temples and diverse rituals within Chinese communities. In Thailand/Siam, where Theravada Buddhism has dominated since the 13th century, these religious imports have been integrated into Thai-Chinese cultural and artistic traditions. Despite extensive scholarly studies on Chinese folk beliefs in Southeast Asia, the specific rituals brought from China have received less attention, even though they remain popular among the Chinese in Thailand, particularly in Bangkok. This study focuses on the Yogacara Ulkā-Mukha Ritual, a sophisticated ritual inherited by various Chinese Buddhist schools, and its prevalence among the Chinese in Thailand, especially in Bangkok. Through three months of fieldwork in Bangkok's Chinatown, which involved assessing religious calendars of Chinese temples and interviewing ritual performers, sponsors, and attendees, it was found that the Yogacara Ulkā- Mukha Ritual is annually organized by Jin Nikāya, a local Chinese sect of Thai Buddhism, and Chinese lay Buddhist societies. The ritual typically occurs around the 15th day of July, during the Ghost Festival, with collective sponsorship from the Chinese faithful. Wealthier Chinese families also occasionally sponsor the ritual at funerals. The average cost of the ritual is 50,000 Thai Baht (approximately 1,600 USD), covering material offerings, payments to monk performers, lay associates, and decorative expenses. Interestingly, the performers, mostly local monks from Jin Nikāya, do not speak Chinese and recite prayers based on Thai sound marks. This raises questions about the ritual's religious validity due to the lack of deep understanding of the Chinese verses and mantras. Despite this, the study argues that the Yogacara Ulkā-Mukha Ritual remains a well-preserved cultural heritage within Thai-Chinese communities. Its persistence highlights the continued influence of Chinese ghosts and ritualistic salvation beliefs. The study explores Chinese Mahayana Buddhism's historical and doctrinal dimensions in Thailand, emphasizing the balance between religious practice and cultural adaptation within the Thai-Chinese Buddhist milieu.